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- >$60,000
- $50,000 – $60,000
- $40,000 – $50,000
- $30,000 – $40,000
- $20,000 – $30,000
- $10,000 – $20,000
- $5,000 – $10,000
- $2,500 – $5,000
- $1,000 – $2,500
- <$1,000
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??(經濟)[a]? ??, ??, ??, ??? ???? ??? ??? ?? ????. ?? ?? ??? ??, ?? ? ??? ??? ??, ?? ? ??? ??? ???? ??? ???? ????.[3] ??? ??? ??? ?? ??, ??, ??, ?? ??, ??, ?? ??, ?? ??, ?? ??, ?? ??? ?? ???? ?? ???? ??? ????. ??? ??? ??? ???? ??, ??, ?? ? ????? ????. ?? ??, ?? ??? ???? ???? ?? ?? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ????.
?? ??? ??, ??, ??, ??? ? ??. ?? ??? ? ?? ?? ???? ???? ??? ???? ?? ?? ??? ??? ? ????, ????? ?? ??? ????. ??? ?? ??? ?? ??? ?? ???? ????.
?? ??? ?? ??, ?? ? ??? ???? ???? ????. ?? ??, ?? (???, ???, ???? ??, ?? ??, ?? ???, ?? ??, ?? ?? ??) ? ?? ?? ?? (?? ??? ?? ?? ?? ??? ?? ?? ???? ??? ?? ????? ???? ?) ??? ??? ??? ?? ????.
??
?? ?? "economy"? ?? ???? yconomie?? ?????, ?? ?? ?? ??? oeconomia?? ?????. ??? ??? ?? ???? oikonomia ?? oikonomos? ? ??? ??. ? ??? ? ?? oikos? "?"? ????, ? ?? ?? nemein? "????"? ????.[7]
"??? ??? ?? ??"? ???? ?? ?? ?? ???? ??? 1650????? ???? ?? ??? ???.[8]
?? ???? ???? "??"? ??? '經濟'?? ??? ????? ???? ?? ??? ????? "economy"? ?? ??? ????, ?? ????? ???, ??? ??? ???? "????"(經世濟民)? ??? ?????.[9] ??? ??? ???? 'economy'? ??? ???? ???? ??? ??? ??, ? ??? ???? ????? ???? ?? ??? ???? ???? ?????.[10]
??
? ??? ??? ??????.?? ??
???? ??? ???? ???, ????, ???? ? ?? ??? ??? ??? ??. ??? ???? ????? ?? ??? ? ???. ???? ?? ??? ???? ? ??? ??? ?????, ?? ??????? ? ?? ?? ??? ??, ?? ?? ? ???? ??? ??? ??, ?? ??? ?? ??/?? ???? ??? ???? ?? ?? ?? ??? ?????.[11]
??????? ?? ?? ??? ?? ???? ?? ??(??) ??? ??? ? ?? ??? ??? ?????. ??, ??, ?? ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? ?? ? ?? ??? ????.[12]
?? ??? ?? ????? ??? ???.[13] ??? ??? ???? ?? ??? ?? ??? ???? ??? ????. ? ??? ? ??? ??? 3000?? ???????? ???, ?, ??, ?? ?? ?? ?? ??? ???? ??? ?? ??? ????. ??/??? ?? ?? ???? ?? ?????, ?? ?? ???? ?? 1??? ?? ??? ???? ???? ?? ??.[14]
???? ?? ??? ??? ??? ?? ?????. ???? ????? ?? ??? ???. ?? ?? ?? 'economy'? ??? ?? ??????[7] ?? ???? ?????? ??????.[15] ?? ??? ???? ???? ?????.
?? ????? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ????? ?? ??. ??? ??? ???? ?? ??? ?? ??? ????, ?? ??? ????? ???? ???? ????.[16]
??
???? ?? ???? ??? ?? ???? ???? ?? ???? ???. ???? ??? ?? ?? ??? ?????. ? ?? ??? ???? (????? 'ventura', ???? ???) ?? ???? ?? ?? ??? ????. ??? ????? ??? ??? ????? ????. ??? ??(1254–1324), ????? ????(1451–1506), ??? ? ??(1469–1524)? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ????. ??? ??? ?? ????. 1513?, ??? ?????? ?????? ?????. ?? ??? ?? ??? ????.
??? ???? ?? ???? ??? ????, ??? ?????. ???? ??? ???, ????, ???, ?? ? ????? ??? ?? ??? ????? ?????, ????(??? 'mercator', ???? ??)? ?? ??? ?? ??? ????? ? ?? ?? ?????. ??? ???? ??? ??? ??? ??? ?? ??? ??? ? ?? ??. ??? ???? ????. ??? ?? ????? ??? ????. ?? ??? ? ????(1773–1855)? ?? ???? ??? ?? ??? ?? ???? ??? ??? ???? ????. ? ??? ??? ?? ??? ?? ?? ???? ?? ??? ???? ???.
?? ??
??? ??? ???? ??? ????? ????? ??? ?? ???(1723–1790)??. ?? ????? ??? ???? ??? ?? ????? ????? ??? ???.[17] ?? ???? ?? ??? ??? ????. ??? ??(??? ??) ? ??? ???? ???? ?? ???? ????. ?? ?? ??? ?? ??? ??? ?? ????? ????. ??? ?? ?? ??? ???? ???? ??? ???. ??? ???(1766–1834)? ??? ??? ??? ?? ?? ??? ????.
?? ??? 18???? 19???? ??, ???, ??, ?? ???? ? ??? ??? ???, ???? ???? ?? ??, ?????, ??? ??? ? ??? ???? ?????, ??? ??? ??? ??? ???.[18] ?? ??? ??? ?? ??? ??? ???? ???, ?? ?? ???? ??? ?? ?? ???? ??? ???. ????? ??????? ????(???? ????) ??? ???? ???? ?????? ????. ? ??? ?? ????? ????, ?? ??? ???? ????? ???? ???? ????.
20??
"??"?? ??? ??? 1930?? ??? ?????? ????? ???? ???.[19]
? ??? ?? ??? ???? ???? ?? ??, ?? ???? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ????. ?? ????? ????? ? ???? (1899–1992)? ?? ???? (1912–2006)? ???? ??????, ??? ???? ?? ??? ????? ??? ?????? ???? ????.[20][21] ??? ???? ??? ??? ??? ? ???? ???? ??? ??? ? ???? ??? (1883–1946)? ????. ??? ???? ???? ?? ??? ???? ?? ??? ??? ? ??? ??? ?? ??? ?? ??????? ???.[22] 1950?? ??, ??? ??? ?? ??, ?? ???? ?? (???? ?? ??)??? ??? ????? ??? ??? ??? ?? ?? ??? ????. 1958?, ? ??? ????? (1908–2006)? ?? ?? 《??? ??》?? ?? ???? ??? ???? ????.[23] ???? ???? ??? ?? ??? ??? ?????? ???.[24]
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?? ?? ??? ??? ??? ?? ?? ? ?? ???? ??? ?? ??? ??? ??? ???? ?? ????, ?? ??? ?? ??? ??? ???? ???? ?? ???? ????. ??? ? ??? ? ??? ??? ?? 1973? ?? 《?? ?? ??? ??》? ???, ?? ??? ?? ??? ?? ???? ?? 《??? ?? ??》? ??. ?? ? ??? ???? 90?? ??, ?? 21?? ??? ???????? ??? ???? ??? ????.
2000-2001? ?? ???? ?? ?? ? ?? ??? ?????, ?? ??? ? ?? ??? ???? ??? ?? ??? ? ?? ?? ??? ?????, ??? ??? "?? ?? ???" ??? ?? ???? ??? ?? ???? ??? ?????. 2000?? ??, ??, ???, ??? ?? ???? ??? ??? ?? ? ?? ??? ????? ???? ??? ?? ? ?? ???? ?? ??? ?? ??? ??? ??????.
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?? ??? ???(?? ??) ?? ?????? ?? ??? ?? ???? ??? ???? ?? ?? ?? ??? ?? ?? ???? ?? ??? ??? ?? ??? ???? ???? ???? ????.[25] ?? ??? ?? ??? ???? ?? ??? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ????.[26] ?? ??? ????? ?? ?????. ?? ????? ?? ???? ??? ???, ??? ? ?? ??? ???, ?? ??? ??? ??? ???? ???? ?? ? ?? ??? ?? ??? ?? ??? ?????.[27] ? ??? ?? ???? ??? ?? ????? ???? ????. ?? ??? ??? ?? ?? ?? ?? ??? ????. ??? ??? ??? ?? ???? ????? ???? ?? ?? ??? ????.[28]
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??? ??? ?? ?? ?? ?? ??? ?? ????? ? ? ??.
- ?? ??? ?? ?? ??? ??? ???.
- ?? ?? ??? ?? 3?? ?? ?? ??? ??? ???, ? ????? ?? ?? ??? ???? ????. ?? ??? ?? ??, ??, ????? ?????. ?? ?? ??? ?? ???? ??? ?? ? ??? ??? ??? ??? ?? ?????.
- ?? ?? ?? ?? ????? ???, ??, ??—????? ??? ??? ??.
?? ???? ??? ??? ????? 3?? ???? ?? ??? ????.[29]
- ?1? ??: ???, ??, ??, ?? ?? ???? ?? ? ??? ????.
- ?2? ??: ??? ?? ???? ??? ???? ?? ????. ?? ?? ??? ????, ??? ??? ????.
- ?3? ??: ??? ? ??? ???? ???? ?? ????. ?: ?????, ???, ???.
??? ???? ?? ???? ??? ????.
- ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? (????? ??, ?? ? ?? ??, ??? ?? ???, ?? ??, ???? ???? ???? ?? ???, ?? ??, ??/??, ?? ??, ??, ??, ???, ???, ??? ??? ??, ??/??, ?? ?? ??, ?? ???, ?? ??? ???/????, ?? ??/??? ? ?? ?? ? ??? ??? ?? ?? ?? ????).
- ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ??.
- ?? ?? ?? ?? ??.[30]
?? ??
? ??? ??? ?? ?????.? ??? ????? (GDP)? ? ??? ??? ???? ????, ? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ??? ??? ??? ???.[31] ? ??? ?? ???? ?? ??? GDP ? 1?? GDP? ?? ?? ??? ?? ????. GDP? ?? ?????, ?? ???? ?? ???? ????.
??? ?? ??? ???? ????,[32] '?? ??'?? ??? ???[33][34]?? ??? ???[35]?? ??? ???? ?? ??? ??? ?? ??? ???? ? ????,[36] ?? ?????? ?? ????? ??? ??? ?? ?? ?? ??? ?? ??? ????.[37] ????? ?? ??? ?? ?? (????? ??)? ??? ?? ???(?: ?? GDP)? ?? ?? (????? ???)? ??? ???? ????.[38][39]
???
? ??? ??? ??????.??? ??? ?? ?????? ??????? ???.[40] ??? ??? ???? ?? ??? ??? ????? ???? ???? ?????,[41][42] ???,[43] ???,[44] ???,[45] ???? ???? ??? ??.[46] ??, ??, ??, ??? ???? ?? ??? ???? ?? ??? ?? ??? ?? ??? ??,[47] ??,[48] ??,[49] ????.[50] ?????? ?? ? ?? ???? ????, ???? ???? ?? ? ??, ??, ??, ??, ?? ?? ? ?? ??? ????.[51]
?? ??
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- ???
- ↑ ??? Economy, ?? ????? ??? oeconomy ?? ???? ?conomy? ????, ? ? /i??k?n?mi/? ????. ? ??? ????? ???? ο?κονομ?α?? ??????, ?? "?"? ??? ο?κο?? "????"? ??? ν?μω?? ????. ??? ???? ?? ???? ??? ?? ????? e? ????? ?? ????? oe? ????? ??? ?? ?? ???? ???. 18???? oeconomy?? ???? o? ???? economy? ? ??? ???? ??? ???.[1][2]
- ???
- ↑ Schabas, Magaret; Wennerlind, Carl (2023). 《A Philosopher's Economist: Hume and the Rise of Capitalism》. University of Chicago Press. 17?. ISBN 978-0-226-82402-4.
- ↑ Essinger, James (2007). 《Spellbound: The Surprising Origins and Astonishing Secrets of English Spelling》. Random House Publishing Group. 250?. ISBN 978-0-440-33693-8.
- ↑ James, Paul; with Magee, Liam; Scerri, Andy; Steger, Manfred B. (2015). 《Urban Sustainability in Theory and Practice: Circles of Sustainability》. London: ?????. 53?. ISBN 978-1315765747. 2020? 3? 1?? ?? ???? ??? ??. 2018? 1? 29?? ???.
- ↑ “The Global Financial Centres Index 37”. Long Finance. 2025? 6? 2?? ???.
- ↑ Laura Bratton (2023? 9? 28?). “Sorry, London — New York Is Still the Financial Capital of the World”. The Messenger. 2023? 10? 11?? ?? ???? ??? ??. 2023? 10? 1?? ???.
The GDP of the New York City metropolitan area is larger than the country of South Korea...New York City was ranked as the most competitive city in the financial industry for the fifth straight year.
- ↑ Iman Ghosh (2020? 9? 24?). “This 3D map shows the U.S. cities with the highest economic output”. World Economic Forum. 2023? 3? 5?? ???.
The New York metro area dwarfs all other cities for economic output by a large margin.
- ↑ ? ? “economy”. 《???-???》. 2022? 4? 26?? ?? ???? ??? ??. 2022? 7? 27?? ???.
- ↑ Dictionary.com ??? 3? 4, 2016 - ??? ?? , "economy." The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. October 24, 2009.
- ↑ ??? (1998? 10? 26?). “[????] (????) '??? ??'”. ????. 2025? 6? 26?? ???.
- ↑ ?:Cite journal2
- ↑ Sheila C. Dow (2005), "Axioms and Babylonian thought: a reply", Journal of Post Keynesian Economics 27 (3), p. 385–391.
- ↑ Horne, Charles F. (1915). “The Code of Hammurabi : Introduction”. ?? ???. 2007? 9? 8?? ?? ???? ??? ??. 2007? 9? 14?? ???.
- ↑ Aragón, Fernando M.; Oteiza, Francisco; Rud, Juan Pablo (2021? 2? 1?). 《Climate Change and Agriculture: Subsistence Farmers' Response to Extreme Heat》. 《American Economic Journal: Economic Policy》 (??) 13. 1–35?. arXiv:1902.09204. doi:10.1257/pol.20190316. ISSN 1945-7731. S2CID 85529687. 2022? 7? 30?? ?? ???? ??? ??. 2022? 7? 30?? ???.
- ↑ Bronson, Bennet (November 1976), 〈Cash, Cannon, and Cowrie Shells: The Nonmodern Moneys of the World〉, 《Bulletin》 47 (10), Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History, 3–15?.
- ↑ de Ste. Croix, G.E.M. (1981). 《The Class Struggle in the Ancient Greek World》. ?? ??? ???. 136–137?., noting that economic historian Moses Finley maintained "serf" was an incorrect term to apply to the social structures of classical antiquity.
- ↑ Jabbour, Elias; Dantas, Alexis; José Espíndola, Carlos (2022? 10? 20?). 《On The Chinese Socialist Market Economy And The "New Projectment Economy"》. 《World Review of Political Economy》 13. doi:10.13169/worlrevipoliecon.13.4.0502. ISSN 2042-8928. S2CID 253213008.
- ↑ Quesnay, Fran?ois. 《An Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World- preview entry: Physiocrats & physiocracy》. Charles Scribner & Sons. 2021? 3? 8?? ?? ???? ??? ??. 2014? 2? 24?? ???.
- ↑ “Industrial History of European Countries”. 《European Route of Industrial Heritage》. ?? ???. 2021? 6? 23?? ?? ???? ??? ??. 2021? 6? 2?? ???.
- ↑ Goldstein, Jacob (2014? 2? 28?). “The Invention Of 'The Economy'”. 《??? ??? ??? - Planet Money》. 2018? 5? 5?? ?? ???? ??? ??. 2017? 4? 6?? ???.
- ↑ Boas, Taylor C.; Gans-Morse, Jordan (June 2009). 《Neoliberalism: From New Liberal Philosophy to Anti-Liberal Slogan》. 《Studies in Comparative International Development》 44. 137–61?. doi:10.1007/s12116-009-9040-5.
- ↑ Springer, Simon; Birch, Kean; MacLeavy, Julie, ??. (2016). 《The Handbook of Neoliberalism》. ?????. 3?. ISBN 978-1138844001. 2020? 10? 20?? ?? ???? ??? ??. 2022? 7? 30?? ???.
- ↑ “What Is Keynesian Economics? – Back to Basics – Finance & Development, September 2014”. 《?? ?? ??》. 2015? 10? 25?? ?? ???? ??? ??. 2015? 11? 2?? ???.
- ↑ Galbraith, John Kenneth (1976). 《The Affluent Society》. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
- ↑ Koppstein, Jeffrey; Lichbach, Mark Irving (2005). 《Comparative Politics: Interests, Identities, And Institutions In A Changing Global Order》. ????? ??? ???. 156?. ISBN 0521603951.
- ↑ Gregory, Paul; Stuart, Robert (2004). Stuart, Robert C., ??. 《Comparing Economic Systems in the Twenty-First Century》 7?. Houghton Mifflin. 538?. ISBN 978-0618261819. OCLC 53446988.
Market Economy: Economy in which fundamentals of supply and demand provide signals regarding resource utilization.
- ↑ Nove, Alec (1987). 〈Planned Economy〉. 《The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics》 3. 879?.
- ↑ Kahle, Lynn R.; Gurel-Atay, Eda, ??. (2014). 《Communicating Sustainability for the Green Economy》. New York: M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 978-0765636805.
- ↑ “In the shadows”. 《The Economist》. 2004? 6? 17?. 2021? 7? 31?? ?? ???? ??? ??. 2022? 7? 30?? ???.
- ↑ Kjeldsen-Kragh, S?ren (2007). 《The Role of Agriculture in Economic Development: The Lessons of History》. Copenhagen Business School Press DK. 73?. ISBN 978-8763001946.
- ↑ Pot??ek, Martin (1999). 《Not Only the Market: The Role of the Market, Government, and the Civic Sector》. New York: Central European University Press. 34?. ISBN 0585316759. OCLC 45729878.
- ↑ “Gross Domestic Product | U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA)”. 《www.bea.gov》. 2021? 12? 13?? ?? ???? ??? ??. 2019? 2? 23?? ???.
- ↑ The volume of financial transactions in the 2008 global economy was 73.5 times higher than nominal world GDP, while, in 1990, this ratio amounted to "only" 15.3 ("A General Financial Transaction Tax: A Short Cut of the Pros, the Cons and a Proposal" ??? 4? 2, 2012 - ??? ?? , Austrian Institute for Economic Research, 2009)
- ↑ “Meanwhile, in the Real Economy”. 《????? ??》. 2009? 7? 23?. 2021? 2? 25?? ?? ???? ??? ??.
- ↑ “Bank Regulation Should Serve Real Economy”. 《????? ??》. 2011? 10? 24?. 2021? 3? 7?? ?? ???? ??? ??.
- ↑ "Perry and Romney Trade Swipes Over 'Real Economy'" ??? 7? 9, 2017 - ??? ?? , The Wall Street Journal, August 15, 2011
- ↑ "Real Economy" ??? 2? 9, 2018 - ??? ?? definition in the Financial Times Lexicon
- ↑ "Real economy" ??? 11? 24, 2011 - ??? ?? definition in the Economic Glossary
- ↑ ? Deardorff's Glossary of International Economics, search for real ??? 1? 19, 2022 - ??? ??
- ↑ O'Donnell, R. (1987). 〈Real and nominal quantities〉. 《The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics》 4. 97–98?.
- ↑ Varian, Hal R. (1987). 〈Microeconomics〉. 《The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics》. ????? ???. 1–5?. doi:10.1057/978-1-349-95121-5_1212-1. ISBN 978-1349951215.
- ↑ Krugman, Paul; Wells, Robin (2012). 《Economics》 3?. Worth Publishers. 2?. ISBN 978-1464128738.
- ↑ Backhouse, Roger (2002). 《The Penguin history of economics》. London: ?? ??. ISBN 0140260420. OCLC 59475581. 2022? 7? 30?? ?? ???? ??? ??. 2022? 7? 30?? ???.
The boundaries of what constitutes economics are further blurred by the fact that economic issues are analysed not only by 'economists' but also by historians, geographers, ecologists, management scientists, and engineers.
- ↑ Swedberg, Richard (2003). 〈The Classics in Economic Sociology〉 (PDF). 《Principles of Economic Sociology》. ???? ??? ???. 1–31?. ISBN 978-1400829378. 2022? 5? 20?? ?? ?? (PDF)?? ??? ??. 2022? 7? 30?? ???.
- ↑ Blum, Matthias; Colvin, Christopher L. (2018). Blum, Matthias; Colvin, Christopher L., ??. 《Introduction, or Why We Started This Project》. 《An Economist's Guide to Economic History》. Palgrave Studies in Economic History (??) (Springer International Publishing). 1–10?. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-96568-0_1. ISBN 978-3319965680.
- ↑ Chibnik, Michael (2011). 《Anthropology, Economics, and Choice》. Austin: ??? ??? ???. ISBN 978-0292735354. OCLC 773036705.
- ↑ Clark, Gordon L.; Feldman, Maryann P.; Gertler, Meric S.; Williams, Kate (2003? 7? 10?). 《The Oxford Handbook of Economic Geography》 (??). ???? ??? ???. ISBN 978-0199250837. 2020? 8? 1?? ?? ???? ??? ??. 2022? 7? 30?? ??? – ?? ?? ??.
- ↑ Dielman, Terry E. (2001). 《Applied regression analysis for business and economics》. Duxbury/Thomson Learning. ISBN 0534379559. OCLC 44118027.
- ↑ Dharmaraj, E. (2010). 《Engineering Economics》. Mumbai: Himalaya Publishing House. ISBN 978-9350432471. OCLC 1058341272.
- ↑ King, David (2018). 《Fiscal Tiers: the economics of multi-level government》. ?????. ISBN 978-1138648135. OCLC 1020440881.
- ↑ Tarricone, Rosanna (2006). 《Cost-of-illness analysis》. 《Health Policy》 (??) 77. 51–63?. doi:10.1016/j.healthpol.2005.07.016. PMID 16139925.
- ↑ 〈Jordan, the Geographic and Economic Potential〉. 《The Economic Development of Jordan (RLE Economy of Middle East)》. ?????. 2014? 10? 30?. 84–114?. doi:10.4324/9781315745169-14 (? ??? ?? ?? 2025-08-05). ISBN 978-1315745169. 2023? 5? 1?? ???.
?? ??
- Friedman, Milton, ????? ??, 1962.
- Rothbard, Murray, ?? ??: ??? ??, 1962.
- Galbraith, John Kenneth, ??? ??, 1958.
- Mises, Ludwig von, ?? ??: ??? ??, 1949.
- Keynes, John Maynard, ??, ?? ? ??? ?? ??, 1936.
- Marx, Karl, ???, 1867.
- Smith, Adam, ???, 1776.
